Marxism Essays (2036 words) - Economic Ideologies, Anti-capitalism

Marxism I. Introduction II. Marxism A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: Economic Evolution III. Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: The Parliament versus the Crown IV. Institutional Theory A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: Social Change V. Conclusion Human relationships have always been dynamic. Change and adaptability have gone hand in hand with the passage of time for human society. Systems have been developed to regulate, direct and control the resources of this society. The systems are referred to as governments and the resources as the populace or inhabitants and forces of production. A government must be dynamic in its nature reflecting the change in society. At times these systems have resisted the necessity to adapt with its components (Society) creating a deficit between the system and those it regulates. As the deficits develop, they cause instability, and could lead to revolution.1 Theories have been developed to explain the systemic phenomenon called revolution. This paper will discuss three modern theories and apply them to the English revolution of 1640. The first theory, developed by Carl Marx (Marxism), will address the economic evolution in English society. This theory will emphasize and explain how the shift from a feudal/mercantile system to capitalism affected English society. The second, called the Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) developed by Charles Tilly, will explain how the English organizations (the Crown and the Parliament) effectively obtained, amassed and managed resources. Samuel Huntington's, "Institutional Theory", will argue that the existing government at that time was unable to incorporate the demands and personnel that the socio-economic changes created. Marxism was formulated in the 19th century. Carl Marx and his associate Frederick Engels observed the socio-economic changes that were transpiring in Britain. England was the dominant world power and had the largest industrialized economy during the 1800's. The development of the factory and the institution of the assembly line created a large demand for workers. This demand was satiated by migrating peasant from the rural areas in England and Ireland to developing urban centers. As these urban centers or cities evolved using industry as the economic backbone for the population, a large number of factory workers were accumulated to operate the machinery in horrid conditions. These workers, which would be termed as the peasantry under a feudal system, were now the working class or proletariat. They entered cities with hopes of bettering their lives and survival. Though revolution never took place in England during this period, it allowed Marx to study industrialization, urbanization and imperialism. The theory of Marxism has three basic concepts: historic materialism, forces of production and relations of production. Historic materialism is defined as a society's past performance and present capabilities of satisfying the basic means of life. Humankind's basic needs of eating, drinking and shelter need to be met properly. The forces of production (technology, capital, the infrastructure of society, etc.) are important for the simple fact of who ever controls them controls the society. The last aspect of Marxism, the relations of production, deals directly with the relationships between classes of people (the aristocracy, the middle-class and the working class).2 Marxism includes a predictive analysis of socio-economic structures. Using history, logic and the dynamic nature of humankind as guidelines, Carl Marx attempts to map out a sequence of events which will eventually lead to utopia (anarchy). In his work, Das Capital, Marx details the six steps. These steps are primitive socialism, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism and then anarchy. The evolution of the English economic system during the 16th and 17th centuries points to a shift from feudalism to capitalism. This shift is exemplified by the enclosures. The landlords began to fence their property in the common land areas. The "commons" were large plots of grazing and farmable lands that were used by both farmers and artisans. When the land-owners and manorial lords began to partition these lands the concept of private ownership of property was introduced to the socio-economic system.3 During the time period of the 16th and 17th centuries the crown's economic base began a gradual decline. This economic shrinkage came to a spearhead during the reign of Charles I. The monarchy favored a monopoly market system over a competitive one. The purpose for this Marxism Essays (2036 words) - Economic Ideologies, Anti-capitalism Marxism I. Introduction II. Marxism A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: Economic Evolution III. Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: The Parliament versus the Crown IV. Institutional Theory A. Definition & Explanation B. Example: Social Change V. Conclusion Human relationships have always been dynamic. Change and adaptability have gone hand in hand with the passage of time for human society. Systems have been developed to regulate, direct and control the resources of this society. The systems are referred to as governments and the resources as the populace or inhabitants and forces of production. A government must be dynamic in its nature reflecting the change in society. At times these systems have resisted the necessity to adapt with its components (Society) creating a deficit between the system and those it regulates. As the deficits develop, they cause instability, and could lead to revolution.1 Theories have been developed to explain the systemic phenomenon called revolution. This paper will discuss three modern theories and apply them to the English revolution of 1640. The first theory, developed by Carl Marx (Marxism), will address the economic evolution in English society. This theory will emphasize and explain how the shift from a feudal/mercantile system to capitalism affected English society. The second, called the Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) developed by Charles Tilly, will explain how the English organizations (the Crown and the Parliament) effectively obtained, amassed and managed resources. Samuel Huntington's, "Institutional Theory", will argue that the existing government at that time was unable to incorporate the demands and personnel that the socio-economic changes created. Marxism was formulated in the 19th century. Carl Marx and his associate Frederick Engels observed the socio-economic changes that were transpiring in Britain. England was the dominant world power and had the largest industrialized economy during the 1800's. The development of the factory and the institution of the assembly line created a large demand for workers. This demand was satiated by migrating peasant from the rural areas in England and Ireland to developing urban centers. As these urban centers or cities evolved using industry as the economic backbone for the population, a large number of factory workers were accumulated to operate the machinery in horrid conditions. These workers, which would be termed as the peasantry under a feudal system, were now the working class or proletariat. They entered cities with hopes of bettering their lives and survival. Though revolution never took place in England during this period, it allowed Marx to study industrialization, urbanization and imperialism. The theory of Marxism has three basic concepts: historic materialism, forces of production and relations of production. Historic materialism is defined as a society's past performance and present capabilities of satisfying the basic means of life. Humankind's basic needs of eating, drinking and shelter need to be met properly. The forces of production (technology, capital, the infrastructure of society, etc.) are important for the simple fact of who ever controls them controls the society. The last aspect of Marxism, the relations of production, deals directly with the relationships between classes of people (the aristocracy, the middle-class and the working class).2 Marxism includes a predictive analysis of socio-economic structures. Using history, logic and the dynamic nature of humankind as guidelines, Carl Marx attempts to map out a sequence of events which will eventually lead to utopia (anarchy). In his work, Das Capital, Marx details the six steps. These steps are primitive socialism, feudalism, capitalism, socialism, communism and then anarchy. The evolution of the English economic system during the 16th and 17th centuries points to a shift from feudalism to capitalism. This shift is exemplified by the enclosures. The landlords began to fence their property in the common land areas. The "commons" were large plots of grazing and farmable lands that were used by both farmers and artisans. When the land-owners and manorial lords began to partition these lands the concept of private ownership of property was introduced to the socio-economic system.3 During the time period of the 16th and 17th centuries the crown's economic base began a gradual decline. This economic shrinkage came to a spearhead during the reign of Charles I. The monarchy favored a monopoly market system over a competitive one. The purpose for this

Shakespeares Comedy Vs. Tragedy Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Shakespeares Comedy Vs. Tragedy Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers Shakespeare's Comedy vs. Tragedy Certain parallels can be drawn between William Shakespeare's plays, "A Midsummer Night's Dream", and "Romeo and Juliet". These parallels concern themes and prototypical Shakespearian character types. Both plays have a distinct pair of ?lovers', Hermia and Lysander, and Romeo and Juliet, respectively. Both plays could have also easily been tragedy or comedy with a few simple changes. A tragic play is a play in which one or more characters is has a moral flaw that leads to his/her downfall. A comedic play has at least one humorous character, and a successful or happy ending. Comparing these two plays is useful to find how Shakespeare uses similar character types in a variety of plays, and the versatility of the themes which he uses. In "Romeo and Juliet", Juliet is young, "not yet fourteen", and she is beautiful, and Romeo's reaction after he sees her is, "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night As a rich jewel in an Ethiop's ear Beauty to rich for use, for the earth too dear!" Juliet is also prudent, "Although I joy in thee, I have no joy in this contract tonight. It is too rash, too unadvised, too sudden." She feels that because they have just met, they should abstain from sexual intercourse. Hermia is also young, and prudent. When Lysander suggests that "One turf shall serve as a pillow for both of us, One heart, one bed, two bosoms, and one troth," Hermia replies "Nay, good Lysander. For my sake, my dear, Lie further off yet; do not lie so near." Although this couple has known each other for a while (Romeo and Juliet knew each other for one night when the above quote was spoken), Hermia also abstains from even sleeping near Lysander even though she believes he does not have impure intentions. Romeo's and Juliet's families are feuding. Because of these feuds, their own parents will not allow the lovers to see each other. In the a differnet way Hermia is not allowed to marry Lysander. Hermia's father Egeus says to Theseus, Duke of Athens, "Full of vexation come I, with complaint Against my child, my daughter Hermia. Stand fourth, Demetrius. My noble lord, This man hath my consent to marry her. Stand forth, Lysander. And, my gracious Duke, This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child." Egeus tells the Duke that his daughter can marry Demetrius, not Lysander. Hermia replies ". . . If I refuse to wed Demetrius," Egeus replies "Either to die the death, or to abjure for ever the society of men." If Hermia does go against her father's wishes, and weds Lysander, she will either be put to death, or be forced to become a nun. Both pairs of lovers also seek help from another. Juliet and Romeo seek Friar Lawrence, and Lysander and Hermia seek Lysander's aunt, who lives in the woods near Athens. Both sets of youths have the same character type. They are young, their love is prohibited, both women are prudent, and both seek the help of an adult. Yet they have their subtle differences. For example, Lysander, never mentioned a love before Hermia. Romeo loved Rosaline, before he loved Juliet. Hermia's family and Lysander's family were not feuding, whereas the Montagues' and Capulets' feude was central to the plot of the play. The stories of "Romeo and Juliet" and "A Midsummer Night's Dream" are very different however. "A Midsummer Night's Dream" is a comedy. Oberon, king of the fairies, sends a mischievous imp named, Puck, to play a trick on the queen of the fairies, Titania, and on a pair of Athenian youth. Puck turns Nick Bottom's head into that of an ass (Nick Bottom is the man in the play production within "A Midsummer Night's Dream"; he tried to play every part), and places an herb on Titania that causes her to fall in love with him. This is quite humorous. However, at the end of the play all the couples are back together, with the ones they love. Thus Lysander and Hermia do get married. If Egeus had showed up at the wedding, he could have killed

Summer school Personal Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summer school Personal Statement - Essay Example When I studied in junior classes, I understood that I love photography. But I did not have a camera. I just watched nice pixes and admired their beauty. Fortunately, now I have a camera, so in free time I can do what I really like. Thanks to my hobby, I met new interesting people and even found good friends. Communicability is one of my positive qualities. Also, I consider myself as responsible and serious person. At school teachers and classmates always can count on my help. I hope that these qualities will help me to become a businessman. In addition to this, to implement such goal I need to improve my leadership qualities. Furthermore, I like writing. When something catches my attention, I want to incarnate it not only in the form of the photographs. I want to write on the paper what I see and feel, and it is great to show the emotions in this way. I try to dream up, because I want my poems and stories are more interesting and exciting. The first acquaintance with your courses began from collecting particular information about it. I can say that on your courses I will be easy to get knowledge. I am sure my teachers will be real professionals. Moreover, I will be able to study with people, who will have similar interests with me. So we will discuss the different details and share our knowledge. Thus, I want to attend the Summer Challenge program to improve my skills. I am sure that they will make me more confident person, who preparing for a new phase of the life after graduation. No doubt, this year is really hard for me. I will have to pass exams and go to university. Before entering I must completely be confident in my knowledge. In conclusion, I would like to say that if I attend your courses, I promise to be a worthy member of the team. I do not want to miss the chance to help myself. Ill try to be positively adjusted and strong. My efforts will not be in vain. I will be available for interview at any time after a graduation my school. Also, I will

Male Dominance and Female Influence on Disneys The Lion King Movie Review

Male Dominance and Female Influence on Disneys The Lion King - Movie Review Example The influence that the company has gained through the decades can be perceived everywhere. It has digressed to almost every kind of media and branched out to merchandising as a lucrative endeavor. One, among the many films produced by Walt Disney Pictures, is The Lion King. This animated movie, released in 1994, has captivated children who witnessed the adventures of Simba and his flight of discovering himself in order to reclaim the heir to the kingdom which was rightfully his. The film has catapulted sequels including animated series featuring some of its most endearing characters. It had actually won a number of awards. Something that was unprecedented at the time for animated films. It paved the way for the recognition of animation as a verified form of filmmaking. It won Best Film under the category of Musical or Comedy at the 1994 Golden Globe Awards where it also when Best Score, a category it also bagged in the Academy Awards that same year. The circle of life, this is the mo st famous song commonly attributed to the Lion King. This is what the film is trying to impart with its audience. The value and the reality that we are all connected. â€Å"Everything you see exists together, in a delicate balance. You need to understand that balance and respect all the creatures -- from the crawling ant to the leaping antelope† (Mufasa, The Lion King). The lions eat the antelopes, as Mufasa had told Simba, but lions die too and when they die, they serve as food to the grass that antelopes then eat. Life is a cycle and a lion may be at the top of the food chain today but he will also become a different part of it the next. But what The Lion King also tells us is that life is also a triangle. The dominance of the male over female characters can be found throughout the film but there are also some that suggest the influence of women on the male’s decision-making. It is a pyramid wherein the pride has a system wherein the alpha lion is the head of the hie rarchy. It is very much a patriarchal society wherein the alpha male and the male figure overshadow everyone else. The leader of the tribe must essentially be a male. This is why the birth of Simba was an event. He is the symbol and the realization that the proliferation of their family as the head of the kingdom will continue. Even the forest has a hierarchy. And this leadership is determined by vigor. Strength may only be a trait attributed to a male lion. There is no such thing as a lion queen. The mere idea is just plain absurd. The process of choosing who the alpha male should be is determined by his strength. This is Scar’s resentment. He was subordinated to the throne to Mufasa because of the scar on his face. This means that he was not chosen as king because he had lost a fight. The aesthetic mark is a constant reminder of his weakness. Though he got the ‘lion’s share’ in the brain as to wits and cunning, his brother got the sheer brute force (Scar , The Lion King). This is obviously more important than anything else. The mere roar of Mufasa and his demeanor was regarded with fear and great respect among his people. The very mention of the name of Mufasa sends chills to the hyenas. He ruled admirably and was able to discipline Simba without using an iron fist. He maintained the peace in the kingdom by adhering to the system limited by boundaries that must not be crossed.

Advanced Corporate Finance Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advanced Corporate Finance - Coursework Example Differential tax treatments are the causes for less than one dividend drop ratios (DDR). Thus, through their research on the relationship between taxes and a firm’s decisions, they articulate that in a rational market, the ex-dividend cutoff should reflect the value of capital gains and dividends to a marginal shareholder. However, when tax enters into the investors’ decisions, the fall in share price in the ex-dividend should show the price of the post value capital gains relative to the post value of dividends. Therefore, because of the influence of tax differential rates, on the capital gains and dividends, the DDR will be less than one because of the fall dividend values due to higher taxation as a result of the effect of personal taxes (Elton, Gruber, & Blake, 2005). Therefore, this impact will influence the firm’s decision in terms of contributions to capital gains and dividends. There are other factors that like tax influences the decisions of a firm to ei ther pay dividends or capital gains. The availability of growth opportunities for investment requires that firms plow back their profits to invest in projects with positive NPVs as illustrated by the signaling hypothesis lieu of paying or increasing their dividend payout, which sends a negative signal to the investors. The stability of earnings is another factor. Firms that have constant earnings are likely to pay out dividends unlike firms with lower or unstable earnings whose dividend payout is likely to result in the decline of growth of their earnings.

Gaap Has Allowed Some Degree Of Managerial Judgment And Flexibility On Managers Accounting Essay

Gaap Has Allowed Some Degree Of Managerial Judgment And Flexibility On Managers Accounting Essay For accounting method, Generally Accepted Accounting Principle (GAAP) has allowed some degree of managerial judgment and flexibility on managers to choose their own accounting method, disclosures and estimates which can make their business underlying with the economics. By applying managerial judgement, it will give chance for the company to achieve on their own desired level of earning .This judgement is referred as to earning management (Wensheng and Jie; Belski and Brozovsky, 2002). According to Parfet (2000), with the flexibility and options given by GAAP it gives a good impact for economic development as others think that they really need the flexibility in accounting methods as diverse industries have different accounting requirements and changes which quickly happen than the FASB can respond. However, there is opportunity to the management to manage earning when many flexibility and options is given in accounting treatment such as too many depreciation methods, and inventory v aluation methods whereby give a chance to managers to choose the method that can achieve a certain level of income. Moreover, the information provided will be overload and user can easily to get confused when there are many options given and accounting profession feels that it is too costly for the preparation and audit of financial statement. As cited by Greenfield, Norman and Wier (2008) on study done by Rosenfield (2000) earning management has been allowed by GAAP in two ways. First way, GAAP permit the company to report all the income that has not been earned and second way, GAAP permit income smoothing whereby reporting the income with stability. There are examples given for these types of accounting practices such as recording revenues earlier than allowed, moving obligation to offshore holding companies to increase income and recording products sales as revenue preceding to definite shipment. For management perceptions, the purpose they operate the company is to have a continuous improvement in their operating business performance with progressively and consistently as to raise financial income and long term development in shareholders value. As for them, sometime they need to have smooth income earning for the value of companys stable growth (Parfet, 2000). Issues of earning management have been arising and take into consideration for a long decade in the accounting profession. These issues have been proven by the case of Enron and WorldCom whereby both the corporate giants collapsed due to practice of earning management. Thus, for company that involve with earning management will bring a lot of consequences and difficulties. It can be given example wherein earning management may let the management to achieve their earning based bonus which also may give impact on managements reputation. Particularly, managers that involve with earning management activities like increase the share price; they also involve in earning management for their own personal purpose and gain (Healy and Wahlen, 1999). Besides, it may cause the problems in management ethics wherein it will be questioned and issued (Guidry, Leone and Rock, 1999). In fact, Merchant and Rockness, 1994 has claimed that earning management may bring and give a potential to the ethical issue that are facing by accounting profession. It has been shown in their study wherein providing the evidence on the ethical assessment of earning management inside the organization which is between their various members only. General Managers, operating unit controller, internal auditor and corporate staff has been involved for this study. Futhermore, referring to Kaplan, 1999, he has extend Merchant and Rockness study by doing the ethical assessment that focusing on the external parties which is outside the organization where is called as users of financial statements. Managers, companies and policy makers will be aware and take a serious action when there is involvement by the external parties as they views earning management as unethical. Means that, if users of financial statement considered earning management as unethical, as a result it will affect managers and companies wherein they will suffer and credibility of companies in the financial markets will be damaged. Referring to Elias (2002), in late1998 of a series of speeches by the former Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Arthur Levitt warned that for those who are misleading in managing earning in the financial report may finally give a bad impact to the US stock market: If a company fails to provide meaningful disclosure to investors about where it has been, a damaging pattern ensues. The bond between shareholders and the company is shaken; investors grow anxious; prices fluctuate for no discernible reasons; and the trust that is the bedrock of our capital markets is severely tested. Levitt (1998) claimed that earning management is a process on game of nods and winks between corporate managers, auditors and analysts. He put notice to the accounting profession wherein any of them is consider as poisoning the financial reporting process when they involve in grey area between legitimacy and outright fraud. Besides, he noted that management may threatening the integrity of financial reporting when they mistreatment of premature revenue recognition, cookie jar reserves, big bath restructuring charges, creative acquisition accounting and write off of purchased in process RD. Due to this matter, SEC has taken consideration and action by examine a new disclosure requirement and set up a earning management task force to clear-out all these things on company that manage earnings. As these speeches has been delivered and to address this concern, there are increasing number of members awareness for the accounting profession on the possible harmful effect of earning managemen t and many academic community has taken an effort to strengthen their research regarding this practice (Elias, 2002). Accordingly, based on the significance of ethical issues in earning management, the main objective of this study is to determine the ethical sensitivity of earning management actions which can be examine through determinants of ethical criteria like Professional Commitment (PC), Personal Benefit (PB), Ethical Relativism Orientation (ERO) and Ethical Idealism Orientation (EIO), perceived role of ethics and social responsibility and personal moral philosophies or ethical ideology. This study will explain the background of earning management and ethics, followed by determinants of ethics and ethics and earning management literature and finally is a conclusions. BACKGROUND ON EARNING MANAGEMENT AND ETHICS Earning Management In several decades, managers have used many practices to manage their earning to achieve different purposes for example DeFond and Park (1997) study has shown the result wherein earning management is used to smooth income in order to increase job security (Greenfield et al, 2008). In addition, some researchers also do a study based on surrvey and experiment on the practice of earning management like Elias (2002); Kaplan (1999) and Kavousy, Fard, Kangarluei and Bayazidi (2010). By comparing accrual accounting with cash accounting, accrual accounting is intend more towards to smooth earning and create a number that is more valuable for investors to forecast future earning. In order to define earning management, we should to find at which point that the managers accrual decision involve in too much smoothing and directly become as earning management (Dechow and Skinner, 2000). There are many ways to define of earning management. DeFond and Park (1997) suggesting that managers will borrow earning from the future in order to cover poor current earning in the current period and expected future current earning is good. On the other hand, when the current earning is good but expected future earning is poor thus manager will save current earning in order to cover the future earnings. While, based on the former SEC Chairman stated that earning management is called as accounting hocus-pocus wherein the managers has exploited the flexibility of financial reporting in order to achieve their earnings expectations (Levitt, 1998). According to Healy and Wahlen (1999, p.368), earning management is defined as: It occurs when managers use judgment in financial reporting and structuring transactions to alter financial reports either to mislead some stakeholders about the underlying economic performance of the company or to influence contractual outcomes that depend on reported accounting numbers. It means that, manager has many options to use judgment to adjust their financial report. For example, the judgment is needed for estimation various future economic event that are reflected in financial report such as obligations for pension benefits, expected lives and salvage values of long term assets, losses from bad debt, deferred taxes and impairment of assets. Managers also need to choose the appropriate accounting methods in order to report the same economic transactions for depreciation methods like straight line or double declining methods and inventory cost methods like the LIFO, FIFO or average cost methods. Management that exercise judgment in financial reporting has face both costs and benefits where the costs are the possible misallocation of resources caused by earning management while the benefits are the possible improvements for management to communicate the private information to the external stakeholders (Healy and Wahlen, 1999). In addition, managers may involve with earning management as due to the several reasons. Managers engage in the earning management in order to raise return, postponement or keep away from contract defaults, increase wealth throughout IPOs or to control particular regulatory outcome. Due to that, it will show a good perception by individual on the ethicalness of certain earning management behavior (Kavousy et al, 2010). The former SEC Chairman, Levitt also noticed that the main reason for increasing in earning management issues is due to capital markets reluctance to forgive companies that fail to notice their earnings estimates (Levitt, 1998). There are numerous incentives provided to the manager for the management of earning. The previous empirical research has classified two main incentives for earning management where divided into two factors which is internal and external factors. For external factors focus on manipulation of earning make by manager as to achieve expectation of financial analyst in order to increase the stock prices (Elias, 2002). Study by Kasznick (1999) shown that company will use unexpected accruals to manage earnings upward if the company face any danger that falling short of an earnings forecast. The result from Barton (2001) has indicated that company use plagiaristic such as income smoothing in order to maintain earnings constant with forecast. Erickson and Wang (1999) noted that due to the equity offering, company has report income by increasing unexpected accruals which managers have overstated earning. While, internal factors relates to the managerial incentives or management compensation con tract such as bonus plans (Elias, 2002). The result from Healy (1985) study indicated that the relationship between accruals of accounting and earning related bonus plans. As bonus plans referred to accounting numbers, managers could more enthusiasm to increase their bonus by exercises in earning management. Particularly, executives choose accounting procedures in order to increase their remuneration that can be rewarded by earning based bonus. Guidry et al (1999) noted that there is strong support for the business bonus maximization by using business unit level data. Earning management can be different with fraud by looking and analysing into conservative accounting, neutral accounting, aggressive accounting and fraudulent accounting. For conservative accounting, it will using GAAP for accounting choices. However, it make accounting treatments more aggressive recognition of provisions or reserves, overvaluation of purchase in process R D in purchase acquisitions, overstatement of restructuring charges and asset write-offs. Due to these accounting treatments, it leads to delay sales, accelerate RD or advertising expenditures. Neutral accounting are accounting involve in neutral operation of the process. For the transactions, it is recorded based on how the way they think is good which just looking by managers based on the transaction nature and the accounting treatment within GAAP. Aggressive accounting are accounting whereby managers understate provisions. The manager will try to appear a low number of estimates of bad debt expenses. It means, t he managers will draw aggressively as low as they can for provisions or reserves like delay R D or advertising expenditures and accelerate sales. The aggressive accounting treatment based on judgment which is not easy to judge. Fraudulent accounting means recording the items that are relate with sales where the sale is recorded before they are realizable, backdating sales invoices, recording fictitious sales and overstating inventory by recording fictitious inventory. As a result, this accounting treatment goes against GAAP and it is fraud (Wensheng and Jie). Overall, earning management will bring consequences in the wearing down of trust between company and shareholders as fraud have been arising to doubtful actual financial instability. Thus, in turn to that masks the true significance of managements decisions (Levitt, 1998). Ethics Of Earning Management According to Levitt (1998), earning management practices in the accounting profession is not a new environment but the implementing strategies to take actions for this issue is well kept secret by corporate executive. As evidence, the managers also unwilling to discuss more regarding the distinction between earning management and management fraud concepts. As a result, SEC has taken an action by identified and prevents this practice as earning management has brought a negative implications and consequences. However, even though earning management issues has been reducing this is not the main goal of the accounting profession to achieve (Elias, 2002). Debate regarding the earning management has been issued and studied by many researchers which are one side of proponent and the other side is opponent. On the proponent side of the debate is the former SEC Chairman who is stated that all earning management behaviour is unacceptable, even have materiality (Grant et al, 2000).In contrast, for opponents side which is the scholars that are disagreed with the SEC that stated earning management is unethical. Kaplan (2001) has given empirical proof to support this argument regarding earning management. He uses a sample of MBA students that can play a role as financial statement users. He makes a distinction for managerial action that can give the benefit to the company and the benefit to manager individually. The result which use shareholders rate showed earning management is more ethical when it more benefited to the company. Conversely, in the non shareholders rated it showed that earning management action as more unethical. This argument has been supported by the other scholar like Parfet (2000). In Parfet (2000) study, it has been gone further and identified that earning management is not essentially always give a negative phenomenon, however it depends on the logical result showed by applying the flexibility of financial reporting options. For example, if managers have credibility to increase shareholders wealth, thus they need to choose all legal options which can assist them to accomplish this goal. Besides, Parfet (2000, p.481) also has differentiated between good and bad earning management. It consider as a good earning management when managers make firm financial performance by voluntary and acceptable business decisions. In opposition, bad earning management is occur when managers has make false accounting entries or broaden estimates beyond reasonable limit. He noted that good earning management is not supposedly to view it as negative and manipulative and cannot be banned. Earning management has influence by many factors like ethics perspective and economic perspective and can be determined and defined from different perception. Ethics perspective is using in order to identify whether have any differences on earning management practices that are perceived by several groups. Normally the ethical research, it will use the assessment of ethical acceptability or unacceptability of various earning management practices by different diversity groups. Numerous attributes for accounting treatment have identified from ethics perspective researches to influence the assessment of ethical acceptability of accounting practices (Wensheng and Jie). Kaplan (2001) found the result this assessment has influence that role in order to determine the fraudulent of financial reporting. This study did not assess in details whether the professionals definitely consider the accounting treatment to be earning management or not. Managers purpose to manage earning is based on their ethics. If their ethics is strong they could hidden from manage earnings because their belief of value do not permit them to manage earnings. Nobody can stop them to do it if they do not have any intention to do so. Thus, it is good for the managers to select the accounting treatments that have been guidance by GAAP in order to minimize any risk arising from violating of GAAP (Wensheng and Jie). According to Kavousy et al (2010), there are four ethics criteria that consist of Professional Commitment (PC), Personal Benefit (PB), Ethical Relativism Orientation (ERO) and Ethical Idealism Orientation (EIO) has been use in order to determine the impact of level of these criteria on the earning management decisions. However, Elias (2002) has identified ethics criteria into two which is on perceived role of ethics and social responsibility and personal moral philosophies or ethical ideology like idealism and relativism. DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS Ethical Ideology and Ethical Judgment As cited by Greenfiled et al (2008) on study done by Schlenker and Forsyth (1977) and Forsyth (1980) noted that an individual ethical ideology or moral philosophy is one factor that are suggest to explain differences in ethical or moral judgment. Forsyth (1980) recommend that the individual ethical ideology is divided into two dimensions which is idealism and relativism that are developed from Ethics Position Questionnaire (EPQ). Relativism can be described as individuals consideration about universal set of rules or standards where individuals reject universal moral principles and rules. Idealism emphasis on human welfare which means describes the individuals attitudes toward the significance of an action and to see the effect of this significance to welfare of others. An individuals ethical ideology like idealism and relativism may affect the business decision making which is also include the decision to manage earnings. For individuals that are more intent towards idealism should be decide not to manage earnings as it could cause harm and undesirable consequences to others and this outcome should be prevented. These individuals also make a judgement on earning management actions as more unethical (Elias, 2002). In contrast, those individuals that are more relativist will think and make a consideration on certain circumstances first rather than caused the potential harm of decisions. These individuals are more lenient in make a judgment for decisions and as a group earning management actions are judge more ethical than do the idealists (Elias, 2002). Personal Benefit (PB) And Professional Commitment (PC) Personal benefit (PB) and Professional commitment (PC) is the objective of profession and acknowledgement the value which means the readiness of professional to practice substantial effort on behalf of profession and sustain their membership in the profession as an explicit objective that is cited by Kavousy et al (2010) on the study done by Porter et al (1974). Generally, the professional should focus more and give a high commitment on their profession rather than to their personal gain. Thus shareholder thinks that managers and employees can manage and protect the assets of the company and make a correct and firm decision in order to increase company value. In details, all stakeholders believe that certified public accountants can maintain the confidence of public that include remaining independent of the client and purposely speak out the financial condition of the company in the annual report (Greenfield et al, 2008). Ethics And Social Responsibility The relationship between ethical behaviour and social responsibility has been examined by Elias (2002) as this relationship is important for the business. As cited by Elias (2002) on the study done by (Davis, 1974; Robin and Reidenbach, 1987) stated it is due to the business that become as a part of a complex and mutually dependent with social system which means the others part of the system is influence by business actions. Besides, it is essential for the business to have a corporate social responsibility as it is a social contract between business and society and community to require a company to show a greater social concern to the society and community. Thus, the disclosure of corporate social responsibility in annual report becomes more important for company in order to maintain and attract companys customer and it also provide information to the public concerning on a companys activities that relate to the community. As to get a confirmation on the interrelationship between ethics and social responsibility, the study done by Singhapakdi et al (1996) that are cited by Elias (2002) shown that there is tools have been developed and used to determine the individuals belief concerning the role of ethics and social responsibility in organizational effectiveness. The questionnaire is divided into three factors. Part of social responsibility and profitability has become the first factor which consider about the individuals that are more concern and aware on this element which they believe that disclosure of companys social responsibility can bring to the profitability and competitiveness to the company. The second factor is regarding long term gain where the individual that involve more in this element will believe that social responsibility has play important role to sustain the business as going concern and maintain it for long term success. Lastly, the third factor is about short term gain where the i ndividual more in this element will believe that social responsibility will make a short term success for the company. ETHICS AND EARNING MANAGEMENT LITERATURE Numerous studies have examine the relationship between ethics and earning management as it become as a hot issue especially for the accounting profession. In the study of Elias(2002) with the research title Determinants of Earnings Management Ethics Among Accountants shows that by using 763 accounting practitioners, faculty and students sample there is positive relationship between social responsibility that focus on idealism and long term gains with ethical perception of earning management and negative relationship that focus on relativism and short term gains with ethical perception of earning management. The study by Belski and Brozovsky (2002) with research title Ethical Judgment in Accounting: an Examination on the Ethics of Managed Earnings shows that the intent of the earning management problems where managers involve in earning management that was assumed as opportunistic or selfish as more unethical compared with earning management behavior target at maximizing the form contracting efficiency. Furthermore, the method of manipulation was also important and to be considered. The study title The Effect of Ethical Orientation and Professional Commitment on Earning Management on study done by Greenfield et al (2008) with a sample of 375 undergraduate business majors, discovered that a positive relationship among an individuals ethical orientation and decision making. Moreover, individual with higher level of professional commitment look to be less likely to involve with earning management behavior and to behave opportunistically. Study by Marques and Pereira (2009) with the research title Ethical Ideology and Ethical Judgments in the Portuguese Accounting Profession indicate that a major determinant for relativism is an age. It contrasts with the prior research where older respondents exposed themselves significantly more relativistic than younger. While a major determinant of ethical judgment is a gender where against expectations, men shows significantly stricter judgments compared with women in two of the five scenarios. It also signify that respondents ethical judgments did not contrast significantly based on their ethical ideology as supporting the idea that determinant of ethical judgments is not important for ethical ideology. Finally, research done by Kavousy (2010) with the title The Relationship between Ethics Criteria and Earning Management in Accepted Companies in Tehran Stock Exchange found that ethical criteria of PC, PB, ERO, and EIO have an insignificant relationship with earning management. CONCLUSIONS Ethics issues have been taking into consideration and discussed by many parties like professional, academic journals and press. Due to this matter, it brings this research more specific on ethical issues that are related with earning management. The perception of earning management is hard to define as it is very subjective. Thus it is difficult to determine whether it is use appropriate accounting treatment or tend to earning management. It is good for the company to follow guidance from GAAP for applying the flexibility of accounting treatment as to reduce the risk that can violate GAAP. Since earning management issue has a great deal attention by many parties, therefore it is very important for the company to consider about ethical issue in order to manage earning. If individual has a strong sense of ethic, earning management can be avoided as they know it is unethical to do it. Even though manager has opportunity to manage earning as due to the flexibility of accounting treatment , they can manage it properly if they have a good ethics. Otherwise, it will caused earning management which show a unethical behaviour to the stakeholders especially the external parties like investors and customers. As a consequence, a strong relationship between ethic and earning management is taking as serious action to consider. Hence, there are ethics criteria like ethical ideology, personal benefit and professional commitment have been considered in order to determine the impact of it with earning management.

Battered Woman Syndrome

The phrase â€Å"battered woman syndrome† was first coined by Walker to provide a clear picture about the recurrent events of violence occurring in a relationship. In this concept, some psychological structures are defined such as learned helplessness. This terminology will aid in the discussion of the reasons behind why certain women, who experience violence and assault, still remain and cling to the batterer and their relationship.Battered woman syndrome has become the subject of court cases in the past years, ranging from the prosecution of the batterers up to the testimonies of the battered woman. It is also traditionally applied as a reason for self-defense of a woman, who is believed to be in an imminent danger at the time she killed the batterer (McCann, Shindler and Hammond, 2004). However, issues conjure in response to this traditionally accepted claim of the victim. One of which is that battered women are masochists.Fulero and Wrightsman (2009) tackled issues about t he battered woman syndrome. They also compiled myths about the battered woman syndrome and one of which is the masochism of battered women. Since it is a myth, there are insufficient proof that the said issue is true and factual. Englander (2007) further added that theories about masochism as being normal for women have no scientific foundation and empirical data to support these theories. It is also not necessary that a woman experiencing battered woman syndrome is a masochist.Different angles of the issue must be viewed first. Consider the social status of the person because having an inferior social status does not necessarily mean that one is masochistic. Consider also her behavior. Although she behaves masochistically, it does not necessarily mean that she is suffering from masochism. Her act of masochism may be due to the fact that she needs to increase her chances of surviving or to eliminate the tension building inside her. A woman may not be able to leave her husband becaus e of the benefit she gains from him (e. g., her children has father) or she cannot find any other man to satisfy her emotional needs (Rancour-Laferriere, 1995). Other factors to consider would include the following: social or financial dependence on spouse, insufficient marketing skills, limited independence and mobility due to continuous childbearing, uncertainty about the severity of the problem, fear of becoming single, poor and alone, and knowledge deficit about other options that may help her (Englander, 2007). If a woman is a masochist, then she enjoys the suffering or the pain inflicted to her.However, Okun (1986) noted that masochism enlisted here does not imply enjoyment of suffering. Instead the suffering is endured because of the woman's low self-esteem and failure to understand her role in their relationship. Battered women are then suggested to be suffering from a subtype of anxiety related disorder. It is said to be under the subclassification of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) since the cyclical act of violence has become a serious threat to the health of the victim and her life.The battered woman often reports flashbacks, nightmares, emotional detachment, numbness, sleep problems, disrupted concentration, hypervigilance, startled response, guilt, and fears of experiencing recurrent violence. Other symptoms would include depression, indecisiveness, low self-esteem, self-blame, passiveness, social isolation, and unwillingness to seek help from others (Keltner, Schwecke and Bostrom, 2007). In conclusion, one must first consider several factors before making assumptions about battered women.They may have some psychiatric disorders that render them incapable of leaving their abusive partner. They may have deeper reasons why they chose to experience physical rather than emotional pain. Knowing that some of these women are mothers, their love for their children may be the only bond that ties her to an abusive partner. References Englander, E. K. (2007). Understanding Violence (3rd ed. ). USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Fulero, S. M. & Wrightsman, L. S. (2009). Forensic Psychology (3rd ed. ). USA: Wadsworth. Keltner, N. L. , Schwecke, L.H. & Bostrom, C. L. (2007). Psychiatric Nursing (5th ed. ). USA: Elsevier. McCann, J. T. , Shindler, K. L. , & Hammond, T. R. (2004). The Science and Pseudoscience of Ecpert Testimony. In S. O. Lilienfeld, S. J. Lynn, J. M. Lohr, & C. Tavris. (Ed. ) Science and Pseudoscience of Clinical Psychology. USA: The Guilford Press. Okun, L. (1986). Woman Abuse: Facts Replacing Myths. USA: State University New York Press Rancour-Laferriere, D. (1995). The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering. USA: New York University Press.

Economic Development and Culture Essay

According to Easterly (2001), attempted remedies to underdevelopment (like loans, FDI, population control) are generally determined by non-economic factors such as demographic variables, cultural characteristics, and political systems. In the following paragraph, Easterly demonstrated the devastating implication of a single path to economic development in many Third World countries. Now, the assumptions of both classical economists and political economists are under attack. There is one element that both these theories ignored: culture. Sociologists and cultural anthropologists often argued that there is no single path to economic development when culture is taken into consideration. Market institutions and free trade instruments have usually low adoption rates in many underdeveloped countries (Easterly, 2001). The reason is not obvious. Traditional methods of production and exchange often obscure economic principles. These traditional methods of production and exchange constituted a significant part of culture. For example, in the 1950s, the so-called ‘trickle down approach’ became popular in the West. The idea is simple. The adoption of technology flows smoothly from the capitalist class to low income agricultural families (Easterly, 2001). Translated into income, the rate by which the capitalist class accumulates wealth is correlated with the rate by which low income agricultural families accumulates capital. In short, the approach benefits all individuals who adopt prescribed technologies (since these technologies increase production and improve efficiency). Such approach was enthusiastically received by Third World countries in the 1950s and 1960s (Easterly, 2001). However, after two decades of trial, it was clear that it failed to produce the desired results. Farmers did not adopt the prescribed technologies, as what the proponents of the approach expected. Several studies were conducted to determine cause of the failure. Culture was seen as the ‘culprit’ variable in those studies. Third World farmers failed to adopt prescribed technologies because: 1) such technologies were antithetical to traditional beliefs and farming practices, and 2) culture did not permit them to use such technologies. These results generally struck down the traditional economic approach to development. Economic principles are not the sole determinants of economic development. Easterly (2001) summarized the role of culture in economic development. His main propositions are as follows: 1) Many economic policies failed because it never incorporated elements of cultural life. Such can be said of the ‘trickle-down approach’ used by many Third World countries in the 1950s and 1960s; 2) Culture decides which and how economic policies should be undertaken. For example, an economic policy that fosters information liberalization in an Islamic country is doomed to failure. An economic policy should be socially accepted; 3) Culture provides an avenue for feedback for implemented economic policies. Culture is itself a collective entity that dictates which economic policies are sustainable in the long-run. Acceptance is not the issue, rather the long-term utility to the society; 4) Culture provides individuals, groups, and institutions the necessary moral information of specific policies. When viewed from the social exchange theory, it is these moral information that enable individuals and groups to rationally weigh the benefits and costs of particular economic policies. In the book Culture Matters, Patterson’s essay successfully showed that economic models failed to explain the persistent social and behavioral chaos that defines inner urban life (Culture Matters, 494). Patterson argued that economic models only explained the tangible elements of economic life; that is, economic models only touched issues like income, consumption, savings, and investment (Culture Matters, 495-98). When those economic models were used to explain behavioral differences across individuals, groups, and classes, they ended in self-insufficiency. However, Patterson’s essay revealed another striking fact. Cultural differences, behavioral outlook on wealth, and socio-religious beliefs were seen as determinants of income, investment, and savings. Groups that have a positive outlook on wealth and investment have tendencies to adopt capitalist principles. Groups which adhere to conservative religious beliefs tend to view capitalist principles as ‘unChristian. ’ In short, cultural differences determine economic development. To restrict economic development to the twin principles of free trade and non-government intervention is misleading. If a country wanted to experience economic development, it must take into consideration non-economic variables. Political culture, ideology, socio-religious beliefs, and systems of exchange are some of the non-economic variables that influence economic decision-making patterns. Works Cited Culture Matters. Ed. By Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington. New York: New York Basic Books, 2000. Easterly, William. The Elusive Quest for Growth : Economists’ Adventures and Misadventures in the Tropics. MIT: The MIT Press, 2001.

Architecture essays

Architecture essays Architecture is one remarkable human endeavor, one of the means through which we try to creat order and make sense of our endlessly intriguing, yet messy world. And to provide ourselves with shelter. We all live and work in buildings. From the humblest to the sublime, there is no reason why any of these should be less than inspiring even in small ways. The turn of a stair, the way sunlight falls through windows in memorizing patterns on the floor, Materials cool to the touch in the heat of summer, the rhythm of an arcade, and the pregnant quality of a dome. At its best, Architecture, whisch is different from mere building, lifts our spirits and sends shivers down our spines; at its worst, it belittles us, although it really shouldnt. Except on rare escapes to desert landscapes, or hiking high in the mountains, or sailing the open seas, most people are surrounded by buildings. There is, though, a difference - a very important one - between building and architecture. Animals can build. Birds build nests of great sophistication, bees build hives with an innate sence of geometry. People on the other hand, developed architecture. This is, to be blunt, the science and art of building, or to be more poetic, the moment that a building is imbued with a knowing magic that tranforms it from a mere shelter into that of a self-conscious work of art. This art might offend and baffle as well as delight. Yet from the magnificence of the Parthenon and the graciousness of the temples of Mahabalipuram, through the soaring ambition of medevial Gothic cathedrals to the skyscrapers of the twentieth century, Architecture is a continually evolving art. ...

General Sherman and The War essays

General Sherman and The War essays William Tecumseh Sherman was born on May 8, 1820 in Lancaster, Ohio. He was educated at the U.S. Military Academy and later went on to become a Union General in the U.S. civil war. Sherman resigned from the army in 1853 and became a partner in a banking firm in San Francisco. He became the president of the Military College in Louisiana(now Louisiana state University) from 1859-1861. Sherman offered his services at the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 and wasput in command of a volunteer infantry regiment, becoming a brigadier general of volunteers after the first Battle of bull run. He led his division at the Battle of Shiloh and was then promoted to major general of volunteers. Soon after Sherman fought in the battle of Chattanooga he was made supreme commander of the armies in the west. Sherman fought many battles with such people as Ulysses S. Grant, and against people such as Robert E. Lee before he was commissioned lieutenant general of the regular army. Following Grants election to presidency he was promoted to the rank of full general and given command of the entire U.S. Army. William Sherman published his personal memoirs in 1875, retired in 1883, and died in 1891. William Tecumseh Sherman, as you have read, was a very talented and very successful man. He is remembered by many accomplishments, but probably most remembered by his famous March to the sea. Sherman's march to the sea was probably the most celebrated military action, in which about sixty thousand men marched with Sherman from Atlanta to the Atlantic ocean, then north through South Carolina destroying the last of the souths economic resources. Bedford Forrest was in Tennessee, and with Atlanta secured, Sherman dispatched George H. Thomas to Nashville to restore the order there. John B. Hood threatened Thomas's supply line, and for about a month, they both fought north of Atlanta. Sherman decided to d ...

Answering a question Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Answering a question - Assignment Example The sentences have been very badly constructed. While reading at the first glance it seems the writer will send the most important work to whom he is interacting with by the 25th of March but after close reading I penetrated that your most important work is just a title of a book. The correct order to write the date is not Mar.25 but either 25 March 2013 or March 25, 2013. The date should be written in full with the year. It is better to always use full form of words in English. We’re, don’t, didn’t etc are not acceptable in writing formal English so short forms must be avoided. The two commas in the second last sentence have been wrongly used. Such commas are used when the word just before the first comma needs to be defined or explained. Then again the vocabulary is not right. The word patronage does simply not makes any sense in the last sentence. Though indenting is optional but one should use it to indicate a new paragraph (Jones). I would like to thank you for the order you placed for the six DVD’s. Due to a lot of work lately I will not be able to hold a meeting with you but feel free to email me if you have questions in mind. I will send you the DVD’s for Performance Appraisal that really improves Performance, Hiring Employees and Your most Important Work by the 25th of March. You will also receive a booklet with your purchase that will contain instructions on how to go about using the DVD. We want you to be 100% satisfied with the products you receive from us. These booklets might also come handy when your organization plans to conduct a workshop or house seminar. Inside the package you will also find our new catalogue that includes information about fifty new DVDs on training. Like with all our training materials, these DVDs carry a 30 day no question asked return policy. Thank you for your order. We very much appreciate your interest in working with

HIV pandemic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

HIV pandemic - Essay Example As such, the prevalence of the HIV epidemic continues to traverse across all quarters of the globe although the burden of the epidemic varies considerably between regions and countries. The worst hit region in the world is Sub-Saharan Africa whereby nearly one in every 20 adults is living with HIV, accounting for 71% of people living with HIV across the globe (Sidibà ©, Zuniga and Montaner 6). I am exploring this epidemic of HIV because I want to sensitize people on the prevalence of the disease, as well as assist in instituting significant changes that might bring down the afore-mentioned statistics. HIV and AIDS is not a killer disease as purported across various platforms, but a preventable and manageable health condition that people can live with and still fulfill all their dreams, goals and aspirations in life (Bahcall 1159). HIV refers to Human Immunodeficiency Virus, which causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome mostly known as AIDS. As such, when this virus infects a person, he or she gets weak and loses ability to fight other opportunistic infections including even cancer. Many people who have the HIV virus end up testing positive for AIDS after developing other opportunistic infections, especially after their immunity levels drop. As such, having the HIV virus does not always means that one has AIDS (Dodds 790). However, a person can live as many years as possible with this virus before developing AIDS. HIV and AIDS are not curable diseases. As such, due to increase on research and medication available today, it is possible for a person to live a normal life with minimal interruption in quality of life. HIV normally attacks and destroys the CD4 white blood cells commonly known as the T-cell whose main function is to fight diseases in the body. As such, when the immune system of T-cells reduces to a very low point, one loses the ability to fight infections in his or her body. However, several conditions arise for patients infected